Why does mangrove soil smell

In fact, taking all their benefits into account, there is a case to be made that mangroves do more for us than any other ecosystem on Earth. Given their fragility, and how often we overlook them, it might be time to start working toward some serious mangrove appreciation. Facebook twitter YouTube Instagram. Please enter a valid email. Thank you for joining the CI Community.

Single Donation Monthly Donation. Blog USA. Protecting the nature we all rely on for food, fresh water and livelihoods. Americas Asia-Pacific Africa. Stay in touch. Thank you. Make a one time donation Make a monthly donation. The stability mangroves provide is of immense importance.

They prevent shoreline erosion by acting as buffers and catch alluvial materials, thus stablizing land elevation by sediment accretion that balances sediment loss. Vital coral reefs and sea grass beds are also protected from damaging siltation. A primary factor of the natural environment that affects mangroves over the long term is sea level and its fluctuations.

Other shorter-term factors are air temperature, salinity, ocean currents, storms, shore slope, and soil substrate. Most mangroves live on muddy soils, but they also grow on sand, peat, and coral rock.

If tidal conditions are optimal, mangroves can flourish far inland, along the upper reaches of coastal estuaries. Mangroves vary in height according to species and environment, from mere shrubs to 40 meter trees. The prop roots of some mangrove species, such as Rhizophora or "red mangrove", and the pneumataphores of others, such as Avicennia or "black mangrove", contain many small "breathing" pores, called "lenticels.

Evolutionary adjustments to varying coastal marine environments have produced some astounding biological characteristics within mangrove plant communities. Certain species of mangroves exclude salt from their systems, others actually excrete the salt they take in via their leaves, roots, or branches. In salt excluding mangrove species , the mangrove root system is so effective in filtering out salt that a thirsty traveler could drink fresh water from a cut root, though the tree itself stands in saline soil.

Certain mangrove species can propagate successfully in a marine environment because of special adaptations. Through "viviparity," embryo germination begins on the tree itself; the tree later drops its developed embryos, called seedlings, which may take root in the soil beneath. Viviparity may have evolved as an adaptive mechanism to prepare the seedlings for long-distance dispersal, and survival and growth within a harsh saline environment.

During this viviparous development, the propagules are nourished on the parent tree, thus accumulating the carbohydrates and other compounds required for later autonomous growth. The structural complexity achieved by the seedlings at this early stage of plant development helps acclimate the seedlings to extreme physical conditions which otherwise might preclude normal seed germination. Another special adaptation is the dispersal of certain mangroves' "propagules" which hang from the branches of mature trees.

These fall off and eventually take root in the soil surrounding the parent tree or are carried to distant shorelines. Depending on the species, these propagules may float for extended periods, up to a year, and still remain viable. Viviparity and the long-lived propagules allow these mangrove species to disperse over wide areas. Certain tree species occupy particular areas, or niches, within the ecosystem.

Some mangrove species occur close to shore, fringing islands and sheltered bays; others are found further inland, in estuaries influenced by tidal action. The mangroves grow in groups, which gives them extra protection from wind storms. The closeness of the trees to each other also leads to the accumulation of large amount of ground litter materials that decompose to drive the nutrient cycle of the forest [ 14 ]. Tree climbing skill is exhibited by red mangrove crabs Goniopsis pelii to hide from ground predators and evade capture.

The crabs eat mangrove leaves thereby contributing to litter fall, which help to enrich the mangrove soil. The mangrove forest is rich in biodiversity and has organism such as monkeys, guinea fowl, periwinkle, mudskipper, crabs Goniopsis pelii , birds i.

The whole mangrove system is built to withstand stressful conditions. For example, its roots are natural air pumps that suck in oxygen from the atmosphere. The roots are also one of the largest above ground root systems possessed by any plant in the world. The roots provide extra support for growth in soft soil.

The mangrove seeds are highly buoyant, which enables them to float, travel and colonize vast areas without drowning. The tenacity of their stems make their wood to be suitable for the production of charcoal and fire wood for cooking in most African communities.

The wood have high combustibility and high fire retention capability. The mangrove forest serves as home for many rural dwellers, who build their houses right inside the forest because it provides protection from flood, tsunami or hurricanes. In addition to plant and animal resources the Niger Delta mangrove forest is rich in crude oil. Most oil and gas exploration activities do occur within the mangrove forest.

These exploratory activities have decimated the mangroves in many locations, which may lead to extinction if this trend is not stopped [ 4 , 5 ]. Over the years the mangroves had survived many environmental disturbances such as hydrocarbon pollution, deforestation, urbanization, and invasive species by adapting to very difficult conditions. Mangroves are adapted to hydrocarbon pollution: This is because series of studies and field observations have shown that mangroves growing in highly polluted plots had better structural characteristics, above ground biomass and species composition than mangrove trees growing in lowly polluted soil [ 45 , 54 ].

It has been difficult to provide answers to the cause of this trend, but of recent it was discovered that the robust growth of mangroves in highly polluted plots is as a result of decomposition and nutrient cycling from excess defoliations as a result of oil and gas exploration. The reason is that oil spill leads to increase in litter fall, which covers the soil surface, and decomposes to enrich the soil. This condition leads to the proliferation of hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria, which detoxifies the soil and increase the soil fertility leading to a positive feedback such as increase in nutrient turnover.

This leads to the rapid growth of mangroves in highly polluted soils. This study is supported by other studies which revealed that the rate of herbivory of crabs and insects on mangrove leave was higher on trees growing in highly polluted soils than in trees growing in lowly polluted soils.

Mangrove of the Niger Delta, Nigeria is one of the most productive systems in terms of biodiversity, and ecosystem services in the world, but because of lack of data it is often not mentioned in many literatures.

This chapter has brought to light the distribution of different species of mangroves between landward and seaward areas and the effect of soil physicochemistry on mangrove species distribution. Rhizophora species i. The positions of the different species of mangroves in the coastal areas had given them the ability to adapt to their difficult environment. The red mangrove of the Niger Delta has one of the longest above ground root systems, which it uses for support and respiration.

The stem is also used for fire wood and charcoal production. The mangrove despite its usefulness to man and the environment has faced a lot of anthropogenic disturbances, which if not curtailed will lead to the final extinction of the mangroves.

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Downloaded: Abstract Mangroves of the Niger River Delta grade into several plant communities from land to sea. Keywords adaptation deforestation ecosystem services west African mangroves.

Introduction 1. Ecosystem services of Niger Delta mangroves The mangrove trees conserve water resources and serve as wind breaks in many communities. Cooking Fire wood is a major means of cooking and heating.

Charcoal manufacture The wood is burnt completely in kiln to form charcoal that is used for outdoor cooking.

Building The mangrove stems are cut to make stakes. Food The red mangrove propagule is succulent and rich in nutrients and is eaten by crabs Goniopsis pelii.

Medicinal herbs Tree barks and roots are mixed with other components to produce medicinal herbs that are used to treat some ailments. Fishery The mangrove swamps serve as natural fish ponds. Forest products This includes timber and non-timber products. Recreation and tourist attraction Mangrove forests are relaxation points for many citizens who visit the area on site seeing trips.

Spiritual purpose The mangrove forest serves as sites for libation and ancestral activities by natives who visit the area to derive some spiritual powers. Production of dyes The tree bark when boiled produces dye used by the clothing industry. Threats to Niger Delta mangroves The major threats to mangroves in the Niger Delta are oil and gas exploration, deforestation, dredging, urbanization and Invasive Nypa palm species.

Mangrove species composition in the Niger Delta There are several species of mangroves in the Niger Delta, but the most dominant ones are the red Rhizophora racemosa , black Laguncularia racemosa and white Avicennia germinans mangroves [ 38 ].

Data gaps Combinations of biotic and abiotic factors had made the mangroves one of the most unique, but less studied systems in the world.

This study thus intends to achieve the following objectives; 1. Objectives To determine the distribution, composition and structural characteristics of mangroves To evaluate the adaptive strategies of mangroves vis-a-vis their significance to the environment. Study area The Niger Delta region is situated in the southern part of Nigeria and bordered to the south by the Atlantic Ocean and to the East by Cameroon.

Table 1. Land area and population of people in different states of the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Source: Adjusted from [ 41 ]. Climatic conditions Mangroves in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria are the largest in Africa, and the third largest in the world.

Sample collection A study on species distribution was conducted between seaward and landward sites in Buguma. Stand structural characteristics The stand basal area, which is the summation of all individual basal areas per unit ground area, was calculated as described by [ 43 ]. The importance value I V of the mangroves was calculated using the equations of [ 43 ]: The importance value is a quantitative parameter used to show the significance of each species within a stand, and it includes the summation of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance.

Above ground biomass AGB The allometric method was used to estimate the plot AGB, since biomass was an indicator of the productivity of a mangrove stand [ 45 , 46 ]. Soil sample analysis A comprehensive physicochemical analysis of soils collected from Buguma and Okrika was done at the laboratory where standard methods were observed to analyze the parameters.

Soil organic carbon Walkley-Black method A representative soil sample was collected and grinded into fine particles, such that it can pass through 0. Soil pH and conductivity pH meter was used to check the acidity and alkalinity of the soil in situ.

Metal analysis A portion of 0. Species composition and diversity indices Most locations in the Niger Delta have similar mangroves species composition. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Species distribution Species distribution from seaward to landward areas indicates that core mangrove species were found in the seaward side, whereas the non-mangrove species were found in the landward direction. Heavy metal and nutrient concentrations distribution along a transect There was gradation of heavy metal concentration along the established 20 m transect.

Table 5. Table 6. Stand structure and above ground biomass Stem diameter of the mangrove trees ranged from 0. More Print chapter. How to cite and reference Link to this chapter Copy to clipboard. Cite this chapter Copy to clipboard Aroloye O. Numbere November 7th Available from:. Over 21, IntechOpen readers like this topic Help us write another book on this subject and reach those readers Suggest a book topic Books open for submissions.

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Rhizophora mangle. Rhizophora racemosa. Rhizophora harrisonii. Avicennia germinans. Laguncularia racemosa. Nypa fruticans. Elaeis guineensis. Dalbergia ecastophylum. Chrysobala musicaco. Scleria verrucosa. Combretum racemosum. Osbeckia tubulosa. Mariscus longibracteatus.

Acrostichum aureum. Scleria naumanniana. Lycopodium cernuum. Alchornea laxiflora. As for their ability to evolve in the face of a major stressor, like sea level rise, genetic diversity is key for a species to adapt to change. Although mangrove populations have flourished in that last 6, years, a past change in sea level during the retreat of the glaciers roughly 20, years ago, potentially killed a majority of their population.

Mangroves have not recovered from this event , as indicated by a very low levels of genetic variability. This low diversity means that mangroves of a single species are so similar that the genetic makeup of one individual is almost identical to its neighbor. Extensive mangrove diebacks in Australia along the Bay of Carpentaria in the Northern Territory and at Exmouth in Western Australia have been linked to a 14 inch 35 cm drop in sea level, which when coupled with prolonged drought, left mangroves high and dry long enough to cause extensive mangrove death.

The ocean is teeming with plants and animals willing and able to move beyond their native habitats, sometimes with the help of humans. Some of these invasive species are encroaching upon the habitats of mangroves. In China, a marsh grass called Spartina alterniflora was introduced in by conservationists trying to decrease coastal erosion.

Originally from the Atlantic coast, the grass works well at maintaining banks and tidal flats, but in China, it began to spread uncontrollably and is now taking over the mangrove forests. Invasive animals can also pose a threat to mangrove forests. An exotic antelope from Asia called the nilgai was released in Texas in the United States in the s as hunting game and is now not only a nuisance for cattle ranchers, but it also eats mangrove leaves. And the addition of rats and feral cats to the Galapagos Islands has caused mangrove finch populations to dramatically decline to a point where they are now listed as critically endangered.

Mangroves themselves can also be invasive. In Florida, conservationists are currently trying to contain an infestation of an Asian mangrove species , Lumnitzera racemose , that spread from a renowned botanical garden in Miami. And in Hawaii, Rhizophora mangle from Florida were introduced by the American Sugar Company in in an effort to maintain erroiding coastlines, and later Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Conocarpus erectus were also introduced.

The introduction of mangrove forests on Hawaii has particularly impacted native birds that are unable to roost in the mangroves and are preyed upon by nonnative rats and mongooses that hide in the mangrove roots.

Efforts to remove the invasive mangroves began in the s and are still ongoing. People attempt to restore mangroves all around the world.

In most cases, they approach mangrove restoration as if they were planting a forest on land. But by , less than 20 percent of those mangroves had survived. Fortunately, one method for mangrove restoration proves to be more successful than other attempts.

In , Robin Lewis began a restoration experiment in Florida that changed mangrove restoration success. Based upon findings that seedlings do best when they are submerged for 30 percent of the time and dry for the remaining 70, Lewis and a team of engineers modified the coastal landscape by moving piles of dirt with bulldozers and backhoes away from the experiment site.

Then, they constructed a slight slope leading down into the ocean so that tides could easily flow. In Thailand, Indonesia, and other countries, local communities dependent on mangroves have learned his methods, too.

Some of their projects include a smartphone app for East African mangroves that allows anyone to collect data on mangrove health. In other areas of the world, like Indonesia, Liberia, and Pakistan to name a few , the creation of marine protected areas that target mangrove forests are helping conserve forests that might otherwise be subject to deforestation.

How diverse are mangroves? How do their components work? What threats do they face—and how can we conserve them? Smithsonian scientists and colleagues from around the world are searching for answers to these and other urgent questions. The scientists make use of the extensive collections at the National Museum of Natural History as well as the facilities at several Smithsonian facilities outside of Washington, D.

These natural laboratories enable the scientists to conduct long-term studies on mangrove ecosystems from a range of latitudes. Mangrove biologist Dr. Candy Feller has spent the last 35 years among the mangrove roots researching the relationship between mangrove growth, nutrients, and the animals that rely on the forests. Feller spends much of her time perched in mangrove trees or sitting among their gnarled thickets—counting, measuring, weighing, photographing and comparing the leaves and animals she finds.

An insect and plant ecologist at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, she has collected dozens of insects once unknown to science.

Part of her research includes carefully dosing individual mangrove trees with small amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus to understand how excess nutrients , which are a major global threat to mangroves and other coastal ecosystems —like those from industrial, residential, and agricultural sources—affect mangrove ecosystems. One of the major questions Dr. Feller and her team hope to answer is how mangroves will react to climate change.

Along the East Coast of the United States mangroves jump northward when propagules hitch rides on hurricanes and then jump back south when there is a major freeze. A future climate that has stronger hurricanes and fewer days that plunge below 25 degrees F -4 degrees C may enable mangroves to travel further distances up the coast. Just like an early frost can wipe out flower sprouts during the spring, a couple of days of icy temperatures is enough to kill a growing mangrove seedling.

But, take away the super cold freezes and the young mangroves are able to survive the winter. As the plants develop into trees, they become more tolerant of cold temperatures and are better able to withstand periodic freeze events during the winter. Climate change will also increase the number of intense hurricanes, a change that will influence mangrove seed dispersal.

Since long-distance dispersal of mangroves relies on ocean currents to move seeds along the coast, the strong currents and whipping winds created by stronger hurricanes will help carry propagules from down south, up the coast into new territory. Once a propagule reaches the northern edge of the range, it not only has to implant and grow, it must also successfully reproduce.

Feller and colleagues are finding that seedlings of all species at the northern limit of mangroves are super reproductive. When most tree species take about 8 to 15 years to reach a reproductive age, these seedlings take just one year.

Perhaps, the initial few seedlings to colonize the north were extremely early reproducers and the trait has been passed down to the current generation. Or, perhaps, being an early reproducer is somehow advantageous in the colder climate of the north, and these individuals are able to outcompete the late bloomers.

About Mangroves - Florida Museum. What's a Mangrove? Skip to main content. Credit: Pixabay. Sections Introduction What Are Mangroves? Photo Caption.

Photo Credit. Some mangroves, like this Avicennia germinans , get rid of excess salt from the water by excreting it through their leaves. The salt can form crystals on the leaf surface. Pneumatophores, like these cone roots, help the tree gain access to oxygen even when the roots are partially submerged. Pneumatophores have small pores called lenticels that cover their surface and allow oxygen to enter the root system. Bradley Huchteman, Flickr. Brian Gratwicke, Flickr. Sea anemones, brittle stars, and sea urchins make a home on mangrove roots.

This slug caterpillar turns into a very plain brown moth with stinging spines. When plants in the ocean die the carbon they use to build their tissues gets stored away in the ocean floor. This is called blue carbon.

Certain ecosystems store carbon better than others.